Lecture 62 (Focus): Indian Cultures in History, 1783-1860

Introduction

The policies, legal precedents, legislation, and administrative structures which were developed to guide Indian affairs in the early national period affected each of the tribes chosen to illustrate the focus lectures. All four tribes signed treaties with the new republic in this period. The Seneca signed not only an early "conquest" treaty, but also a series of later treaties in which the government offered compensation for land cessions. The Cherokee, on the pretext of an unrepresentative treaty repudiated by the overwhelming majority of the tribe, were forcibly removed to Oklahoma. The first United States treaties were negotiated with the Cheyenne and Navajo after 1848 to protect the emigration routes in the West; later treaties with these tribes restricted the boundaries of their lands.

The course of Indian history in this period, however, was more profoundly affected by those who disregarded the government's policies than by those who tried to enforce them. Treaties, Supreme Court rulings, and ambitious federal policies did not stop squatters in the East or trespassers in the supposedly isolated regions of "Indian Country" to the west. Disease, violence, and displacement recognized none of the arbitrary boundaries of policy or jurisdiction. At the beginning of the Civil War, most of the eastern tribes had been largely dispossessed and, in varying degrees, acculturated. Most shared the problems of factionalism, depleted resources, and disorientation, and the plagues of alcohol and disease introduced by non-Indians.

Further west) the pace of change had been slower. Although guns, horses, and metal had become an indispensable part of many cultures, such as the Navajo and Cheyenne, and epidemic disease had moved west with the fur trade, the impact of European belief systems, social structures, religions, and forms of government was still limited. Even the radical culture change which had occurred on the Plains owed more to inter-tribal influence than to European intellectual cultures. Territorial pressure on the Indians of the West was, until the final decades of the period, largely an indirect result of international rivalries and the displacement of the eastern tribes. By the 1850s, however, the portents of change in the West were clearly visible. The western tribes had preserved their cultures and their territories for a longer period than had the eastern tribes, but they were soon to lose their ways of life and their lands beneath the floodwaters of "Manifest Destiny."

Lecture 62 (Focus): Indian Cultures in History, 1783-1860

I. The Northeast: Seneca Iroquoian Culture Change, 1783-1860

A. Technology

1. Goods

a. By the 1790s all clothing, except moccasins, was made of cloth (Wallace, pp. 191-92).

b. By 1800 the European "agricultural revolution" sponsored by the Quakers was well underway.

c. European tools, from plows to spinning wheels, had become an integral part of Seneca culture by the 1820s (Wallace, p. 310-13).

2. Settlement Patterns (Wallace, pp. 311-12)

a. Towns of log dwellings had replaced the traditional villages of long-houses by 1800.

b. By 1806, under Quaker influence, the former town inhabitants had spread out on nuclear-family farm-plots. They built individual log houses, many of which were shingled, painted, and equipped with panel doors and glass windows.

B. Economy

1. After the war the Seneca became dependent on annuities and handouts from agents and missionaries. In 1801, however, they asked the government to deposit their annuities in a national fund at the Bank of the United States instead of distributing them in small, easily squandered individual payments.

2. Initially a failure among the Iroquois, the Congressional "civilization program" became successful when it channeled its funds through the Quakers, who committed themselves to establishing a model farm on the Allegany Seneca Reservation in 1798 (Wallace, pp. 219-25).

a. This began the Seneca's shift to family farming with both men and women working the family plot.

b. By 1810 most Seneca were engaged in stock-raising (cattle, horses, and swine) and farming (new crops included oats, buckwheat, potatoes, turnips and flax) (Wallace, pp. 312-14).

C. Sociopolitical Organization

1. Social Structure

a. The major change in social structure was the decline of matriliny and the rise of nuclear,
patrilineal families, which resulted from the acceptance of the "family farming" model
and the male assumption of the traditionally female agricultural role.

b. This transformation was sanctioned not only by the elite men (such as Cornplanter and
Handsome Lake) and the white Quakers whom they sought to please, but also by the
"important women," who constituted the core of the matrilineal system. There was,
however, some opposition (Wallace, pp. 311-12).

2. Political Structure

a. The war for the Northwest Territory divided the Iroquois League into factions.

b. Cornplanter became the effective chief of the Allegany Seneca as a result of his role in
negotiations, his character, and the treaty annuities system. With the rise of his brother,
Handsome Lake, to the status of a prophet in 1799, a new type of familial, male-oriented
political power emerged.

(1) In a successful bid for absolute political power, Handsome Lake in 1803 sought to
remove the League’s council fire from Buffalo Creek to Cornplanter’s town,
despite objections from Brant's Canadian Mohawks and others.

(2) Later in 1803 the prophet left his brother's town after a quarrel and founded Cold
Spring. This caused dissension in the Allegeny band and lost Handsome Lake
many valuable friends (Wallace, pp. 285-95).

c. The ascendancy of the Handsome Lake religion (which was organized into a church at
Tonawanda) together with the sale of the Buffalo Creek Reservation made Tonawanda
the new center of gravity for the Iroquois in the late 1840s.

d. In an attempt to regain control of their affairs after unfair treaties had deprived them of
much of their land, the Seneca called a convention in 1848. Seeking to create a more
representative government, they promulgated a constitution (Abrams, pp. 62-64;
Cohen, p. 421).

(1) The constitution modified the tribal form of government without abolishing it.
The chiefs were replaced by an elective council and courts were established.

(2) The United States government recognized this new form of government for the
Allegany and Cattaraugus reservations in 1849.

e. The Tonawanda Seneca separated from the Seneca Nation (Abrams, p. 62; Cohen, p.
421).

(1) Because the Seneca attempted to forfeit the Tonawanda Reservation as part of the
Compromise Treaty of 1842, the Tonawanda seceded from the Seneca.

(2) In 1856 the Tonawanda, who had refused to move, were able to buy back 1/10 of
their land from the Ogden Land Company. They paid $20 an acre for land that
had been sold at 20 cents an acre.

(3) The Tonawanda Seneca became a separate political entity in 1857. They did not
adopt the new form of government because they were satisfied with the chiefs
who had resisted the sale of their lands.

D. Population and Territory

1. Population: In 1848 the population was estimated at 3,792.

2. Territory: During this period, the Seneca lost most of their native lands (see E., below).

E. War, Trade, and Diplomacy

1. In the years following the Peace of Paris, the federal government and the states of New
York and Massachusetts all claimed jurisdiction over Seneca lands (Wallace, pp. 149-54;
Abrams, p. 43).

a. The federal government eventually relinquished its claim to sovereignty over Indian
lands east of the state boundary of New York.

b. In 1786, at the Hartford Convention, the state of New York gave its "right of first
purchase" to the state of Massachusetts.

c. In subsequent years that right was sold to a series of land companies.

2. The Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1784) and other treaties negotiated with the Iroquois after
the Revolution were "conquest" treaties, which forcibly deprived the Indians of their
land without compensation.

a. As a result of these treaties, the Iroquois lost all of their western lands in Ohio.

b. They retained only small reserves within state boundaries.

3. The Treaty of Fort Harmar (1789) was the first United States treaty to offer
compensation for land-cessions.

a. Although the treaty represented a repudiation of "conquest" treaties, it reaffirmed
most of the provisions of the Treaty of Fort Stanwix.

b. Most of the tribes involved were not adequately represented in the negotiations, and
the treaty did not correct the abuses of the earlier treaties. As a result, it provoked
widespread opposition among the Iroquois and other northwestern tribes.

4. The Treaty of Canandaigua of 1794 corrected many of the problems that the Seneca had
objected to in the earlier treaties.

a. It gave formal recognition to Seneca land rights.

b. It established the reservation system in New York.

5. By 1794, when the western tribes were defeated in the Battle of Fallen Timbers, the
widespread Iroquoian alliance had collapsed.

6. In the Treaty of Big Tree (1797) the Seneca ceded the bulk of their lands east of
the Genessee. Liquor, bribes, high-pressure salesmanship, and individual weakness
were used to obtain this land-cession.

a. The Seneca retained only 311 square miles of land in New York. Some of the tracts
were as small as 1 or 2 square miles.

b. Cornplanter, who agreed to the cessions, was given a private land-grant.

c. The tribe was to receive $100,000; each Seneca would receive an annual payment
of $4 from the interest on this sum.

7. In the War of 1812, the Seneca officially adopted a neutral stance.

8. After the war the Ogden Land Company, the latest holder of the "right of first
purchase," negotiated 2 treaties with the Seneca (Abrams, pp.61-62; Cohen, p. 420).

a. The Treaty of 1838 provided for the exchange of Seneca "removal" lands in
Wisconsin for new lands in Kansas and the cession of 4 Seneca reservations
(almost 115,000 acres).

b. Because the negotiations had relied on bribery, alcohol, and illegal signatures, the
Seneca refused to vacate their land.

c. As a result, the Compromise Treaty of 1843 was negotiated.

(1) In this treaty the Ogden Land Company returned the Cattaraugus and
Allegany reservations to the Seneca.

(2) The Ogden Land Company retained the Buffalo Creek and Tonowanda
reservations, as well as the "right of first purchase" to the remainder of
Seneca land.

F. Intellectual Culture

1. By the end of the eighteenth century, the Seneca were economically impoverished,
politically divided, and severely demoralized.

a. Convinced of their cultural inferiority, they slavishly tried to satisfy the whites.

b. Depression and chronic alcoholism were widespread.

c. Many Seneca believed that the incidence of witchcraft had increased.

2. Two factions emerged in this period.

a. A strong acculturation-oriented faction was divided into two groups, the more
extreme led by Brant and the more moderate led by Cornplanter.

b. A nativistic faction led by Red Jacket, Cornplanter's old rival, arose at Buffalo
Creek.

3. A vision received by Handsome Lake on June 15, 1799, became the basis of a nativistic
revitalization movement first among the Seneca and later among the Iroquois generally.
The Handsome Lake religion contained both an apocalyptic and a social gospel.

a. Apocalyptic Gospel (Wallace, pp. 249-54)

(1) Ethics: The four evils stressed by Handsome Lake were witchcraft, love
magic, abortion, and drunkeness.

(2) Theology: The idea of divine judgment and heaven or hell as reward or
punishment was adopted. Though native tradition included the concept of a
cosmic struggle between Good and Evil Twins, the notion of heaven and hell
had not been a general belief among the Seneca before the Handsome Lake
religion.

(3) Ritual: The new gospel reinforced the native ritual calendar and expanded the
traditional confession of witchcraft to public confession of sin.

b. Social Gospel

(1) Strict temperance was required.

(2) Unity and peace among Iroquois and amity with whites were encouraged.

(3) The land base was to be preserved.

(4) Handsome Lake advocated a moderate pro-acculturation stance, while
rejecting white vices and the profit motives

(5) The religion emphasized domestic morality.

(a) Sons should obey fathers, and mothers should not interfere with
daughters

(b) The sanctity of marriage was stressed.

(c) The patrilineal, nuclear family was favored above the matrilineal,
extended family.

4. At the beginning of 1814, Christian evangelization divided the Seneca into Christian and
pagan factions, categories that overlapped the progressive-traditional (see 2.a., above).

5. By the mid-1840s, the Handsome Lake religion bad taken on much of the character of a
church. The Gospel was recited at semi-annual feasts.

II. The Plains: Cheyenne Culture Change, 1784-1861

A. Technology (Jablow, pp. 1-50)

1. Goods

a. In the first twenty years of this period, the horse was the major acquisition; in the following twenty years, the gun became the primary addition.

b. With the establishment of Fort Bent and Fort St. Vrain, non-Indian trade became more general in the 1830s.

c. By the end of the period, the Cheyenne were highly dependent on European trade goods. Alcohol was especially in demand.

2. Settlement Patterns: By the mid-1820s, the Cheyenne had abandoned earth lodge villages for the tipi and the Plains circle encampment.

B. Economy (Jablow, pp. 1-51)

1. After becoming fully mobile, the Cheyenne traded in both European and native goods.

a. The Cheyenne exchanged such native goods as quilled buffalo robes for Ankara produce and tobacco.

b. They also participated in the widespread trade network established by the fur trade. Horses acquired from the Kiowa and Comanche were exchanged for guns, powder, and ammunition.

2. Sioux dominance of Ankara after 1813 led Cheyenne to seek trade with Mandan Hidatsa.

3. Cheyenne economy had come to depend heavily on buffalo, which were hunted from the Black Hills south to the Arkansas River.

4. By the 1830s the buffalo-robe trade in both north and south was supplemented with trade in horses and mules at Bent's Fort.

5. Medicine bundles began to be "sold" to acquire capital.

6. In the 1840s horse herds became a sign of status and a form of capital (Jablow, p. 76).

7. By the 1850s dependence on traders, warfare, and the disruption of hunts by non-Indian
immigration led to periods of starvation.

C. Sociopolitical Organization

1. At the family level, the growth of the buffalo-robe trade encouraged polygamy since more
wives could process more buffalo hides (Jablow, pp. 20-22).

2. At the national level, there were two important developments.

a. Around 1812 a group of Cheyenne joined the Arapaho in moving south.

(1) This paved the way for others who followed in the 1830s after the establishment of
Bent's Fort.

(2) Although in 1850 the Cheyenne had not yet completely divided, by 1860 the
Northern and Southern Cheyenne were by their own admission distinct political
groupings.

b. In 1835 the United States, through Colonel Dodge, first established and confirmed
Cheyenne "chiefs" for the purposes of negotiation.

D. Population and Territory

1. Population (Berthrong, pp. 22, 101, 132, and no. 12)

a. The Cheyenne population was estimated at 3,000 in 1825; 2,800 in 1828; 2,800 in
1846-1847; and 4,500 in 1855 (an exaggerated estimate).

b. In 1849 a cholera epidemic struck the Southern Cheyenne.

c. In 1845 measles and whooping cough struck the Central Cheyenne.

2. Territory

a. Sioux pressure drove Cheyenne from Missouri River villages to the Black Hills
between 1790 and 1800; in later years the Cheyenne were pushed west to the
Yellowstone River and south between the forks of the Platte.

b. With the Arapaho, the Cheyenne dominated the east side of the Rockies.

c. Cheyenne territory was restricted slightly under the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851)
and severely under the Treaty of Fort Wise (1861).

E. War, Trade, and Diplomacy

1. Village Period, c. 1784-1810: Sioux to the west and Chippewa to the east drove the
Cheyenne from villages on the Missouri and Cheyenne rivers (Wood, pp. 55-57).

2. Plains Trade Period, 1810-1840 (Jablow, pp. 51-77)

a. The Cheyenne allied themselves with Arapaho for the purpose of stealing horses from
the Kiowa and Comanche to trade with the Missouri River villages.

(1) This alienated their traditional trade partners, the Ankara, from whom the
Cheyenne had obtained guns.

(2) The Ankara traded Cheyenne horses to the Sioux for guns, aggravating the
already tense Sioux-Cheyenne relations.

b. The search for horses and the presence of Bent's Fort drew the Cheyenne south across
the Arkansas River into Kiowa and Comanche country.

c. The Great Peace of 1840 between the allied Kiowa and Comanche and the allied
Arapaho and Cheyenne benefited both groups.

(1) The Kiowa and Comanche secured a steady supply of guns and ammunition to
use against the Texans and Mexicans.

(2) The Cheyenne and Arapaho received a steady supply of horses to trade for guns
and other goods.

3. Emigrant Treaty Period, 1840-1861

a. Exploration through Cheyenne country for emigration purposes began with Fremont
in 1842-1844. General Kearny followed the Oregon Trail through Cheyenne country
in 1845 to "secure" the route.

b. In 1851 the Cheyenne accepted the Treaty of Fort Laramie, which required few
concessions and brought "peace." Congress, however, found it too generous and cut
the annuities.
c. Warfare with the Pawnee and Potawatomi began in this period.

(1) Pawnee attacks on emigrants brought unjust retaliation on the Cheyenne.

(2) Heavily armed Pawnee, pressed for land, moved against the Cheyenne
directly.

(3) In 1853 the Pawnee and Potawatomi, heavily armed with rifles, defeated a
western Plains alliance of the Cheyenne, the Brule Sioux, the Arapaho, and
some Kiowa, Comanche, and Kiowa-Apache.

(4) In 1854 the Cheyenne, Arapaho, Kiowa, and Kiowa-Apache party formed to
attack the Pawnee was defeated by a group of Sac, Fox, and Potawatomi
(Berthrong pp. 127-28).

d. In 1857 Colonel Sumner was sent on an expedition to punish the Southern
Cheyenne for raids committed by bands of Northern Cheyenne. Despite this
expedition and the Pikes Peak Gold Rush of 1858, the Cheyenne maintained a tense
peace.

e. In 1861 starvation and depression had become so severe that the peace chiefs of the
Cheyenne signed the Treat of Fort Wise, which severely restricted their land. The
warriors, however, refused to sign the treaty.

F. Intellectual Culture

1. With the incorporation of some Suhtaio into the Cheyenne around 1800, the Sacred
Medicine or Buffalo Hat cult came into the tribe.

2. At the same time, non-Cheyenne elements, especially self-torture rites, were
incorporated into the Cheyenne Sun Dance.

3. Near-tragedy befell the Cheyenne in 1830 when the Pawnee captured the Sacred Arrows
bundle.

a. As late as 1866, attempts were made to secure the return of the arrows, but all in
vain.

b. Substitutes were made.

c. Much of the Cheyenne tragedy of the nineteenth century attributed to the loss of the
Sacred Arrows.

4. Ritual broke down before compulsions of trade and war.

III. The Southeast: Cherokee Culture Change, 1785-1860

A. Technology

1. Goods

a. By 1825 the Cherokee owned many looms, spinning wheels, wagons, and plows. They also owned ten saw mills, thirty-one gristmills, sixty-one blacksmith shops, and eight cotton gins (Woodward, p.144).

b. Some of the wealthier Cherokees held slaves.

2. Settlement Patterns

a. The town system continued (Woodward, Chapter XII).

b. During the Tahlequah Period (1843-1859), individual and family property ownership became an important part of the town system. Individual building lots were marked off. Some of the wealthier Cherokee had plantations (Woodward, Chapter XII).

c. Some frame houses and brick mansions appeared in this period.

B. Economy

1. In the 1790s family farming, augmented by some stock raising and orchards, was the prominent occupation (Woodward, pp. 117-20,144).

2. The Cherokee trade debt to the United States "factory system^t' was paid off by land cessions to the United States (a Jeffersonian policy).

3. By 1830 slavery and merchandising had entered the economy, creating definite class distinctions.

4. During the Tahlequah period, merchandising played a prominent part in the new capital city's economy. The gold rushers provided an especially lucrative market for services and goods.

5. The Cherokee Agricultural Society was formed to promote fruit and vegetable husbandry instead of cotton raising.

6. Fort Gibson and its liquor trade were abolished in 1857.

C. Sociopolitical Organization

1. During the years between 1817 and 1827, the Cherokee tribal government was reorganized
(Woodward, chapter XII).

a. The new government was patterned after the United States federal government, with
the principal chief as head executive, an elective bicameral legislature, and a national
supreme court.

b. The Cherokee Nation was divided into eight judicial districts, each with its own local
council, marshal, and judge.

c. A written constitution was promulgated on July 26, 1827.

d. John Ross was elected as the first principal chief.

e. The capitol of the Cherokee Nation was established at New Echota.

2. The policies of land cession and removal divided the tribe into two factions.

a. A minority faction led by the Ridges and Elias Boudinot supported removal and signed
the Treaty of New Echota (1835).

b. The majority party led by Ross opposed land cession and removal.

c. Division persisted even after removal. It culminated in the execution of the Ridges
and Boudinot.

3. The Illinois Campground Council (1839) passed the Act of Union resolving to unite the
Eastern (led by Ross) and Western (led by Ridge and Old Settler) Cherokees. Both
groups signed a new constitution on September 6, 1839, at Tahlequah.

4. The United States government under President Van Buren deliberately tried to undermine
the unity and stability of the Cherokee government (Woodward 233-35). The Treaty of
1846 ended unconstitutional federal attempts to legalize the internal division within the
tribe (Woodward, pp. 235-37).

D. Population and Territory

1. Population

a. The Cherokee population was estimated at 18,000 in 1837 (Woodward, p. 218).

b. Removal took 4,000 lives (Woodward, p. 218).

c. The population of Cherokee Nation West was estimated at 21,000 in 1859 (Woodward, p. 252).

2. Territory

a. Twenty-five land cessions were made between 1791 and 1819 (Woodward, pp. 27-28).

b. After the Georgia Compact of 1802, the "Old Settlers" (1,130 Chickamaugan Cherokees) were removed to western lands (Woodward, p. 130). They were joined by 3,700 others whose land was extorted from them in 1817.

c. In the Treaty of New Echota (1835), all Cherokee land east of the Mississippi River was "exchanged" for land in "Indian Territory," plus 5 million dollars and removal costs.

(1) Some 2,000 Cherokee left during 1837; from June to November 1838, the remainder were sent to "Indian Territory" by overland and water routes.

(2) Cherokee Nation West comprised 7 million acres in "Indian Territory" (Royce, p. 101).

(a) Its borders were defined by the Mississippi River on the northeast and the Arkansas River on the east.

(b) The Cherokee were also guaranteed a "peripheral outlet west."

E. War, Trade, and Diplomacy

1. The Treaty of Holston (July 2, 1791) established the United States sole right to treat with the Cherokee (Woodward, pp. 112-13).

a. This treaty defined the boundaries of the Cherokee Nation (with some Cherokee land-loss).

b. The government also promised to provide agricultural and technical assistance.

2. The Tellico Blockhouse Treaty (1794) ended the efforts of the Cherokee war faction. Then the Cherokee were able to turn their attention to domestic affairs.

3. During the Creek War (1813-1814), approximately 700 Cherokees served the United States under Jackson against the Creeks. They balked when Jackson wanted to include Cherokee land as part of the Creek cession.

4. In the Georgia Compact of 1802, the federal government agreed to hasten the extinction of Cherokee title to Georgia in exchange for Georgia's cession of western lands. This led to the removal of 1,130 Chickamaugan Cherokees (Woodward, p. In 1817 these Cherokee were joined by 3,700 others whose land was extorted.

5. Federal removal legislation, unconstitutional laws passed the state of Georgia, and President Jackson's refusal to enforce a Supreme Court decision which upheld Cherokee rights all paved the way for Cherokee removal

6. The Treaty of New Echota was used as the pretext for Cherokee removal. Although the treaty had been repudiated by more 15,000 Cherokee, the Senate ratified it in 1836 and the Cherokee were compelled to leave their homeland in 1838.

7. In the Treaty of 1846, the United States recognized the unified Cherokee government headed by John Ross, agreed to pay unjustly withheld funds, and promised to adjudicate all claims (Woodward, pp. 235-37).

8. In 1846 the Ross Cherokees called a month-long inter-tribal council at Tahlequah for representatives of 21 tribes living in or near “Indian Territory." The council was designed end inter-tribal border warfare, but the measures it adopted had only limited success (Woodward, pp. 239-40).

F. Intellectual Culture

1. During this period the Cherokee developed their educational systems (Woodward, pp. 123, 143, 144, 252).

a. The first mission school was established in 1801.

b. By 1826 there were eighteen schools in the Cherokee Nation.

c. By 1857 there were thirty schools, with fifteen-hundred pupils; all teachers except two were
Cherokee.

d. Many of the wealthier Cherokees attended eastern academies and universities.

2. George Gist, or Sequoyah, invented a syllabary for the Cherokee language in 1821 (Woodward,
pp. 132, 1423).

3. Two bilingual newspapers served the Cherokee nation (Woodward, pp. 142-44, 246).

a. The Cherokee Phoenix fought against removal from 1828 to 1834, though its founder, Elias
Boudinot, resigned editorship in 1832 after joining the pro-treaty faction.

b. The Cherokee Advocate was founded at Tahlequah in 1844.

4. A print shop, vital at New Echota, was also established at Tahlequah (Woodward, pp. 240, 249)

a. It printed as many as 250,000 pages of Cherokee material.

b. It also printed similar amounts of Creek material and some Choctaw material.

IV. The Southwest: Navajo Culture Change, 1783-1860

A. Technology

1. Goods

a. During this period guns and horses were used in increasing numbers.

b. Clothing was modified Mexican style.

c. Metal agricultural implements were distributed during the early American period.

d. Blacksmithing and silversmithing were taught.

2. Settlement Patterns (Spicer, Cycles of Conquest, pp. 214-15; Hester, "Ethnohistoric Reconstruction," pp. 136-37).

a. In addition to hogans of the stone and forked-stick types, cribbed log hogans were used. The forked-stick hogan decreased in popularity.

b. In 1788 extended matrilocal family units were observed. Although a nuclear family was observed in 1804, this isolated instance is an uncertain indication of change.

c. Communities consisted of ten to forty families spread over a large area.

B. Economy

1. Herding (of horses and especially sheep) became the dominant component of the economy
(Hester, Early Navajo Migrations, p. 89).