Explanation Anatomy Physiology Neurochemical Effects

    Domestically and abroad, the United States must use various forms of interrogation to extract information on groups and organizations it perceives to be a threat to the current world order.  Within the United States there are certain rules and regulations, with backing from the U.S. Constitution which restrict certain methods from being used.  So the primary way to extract information in domestic investigations is to wear them out verbally and watch for certain reactions in order to gain a confession, which is essential to prosecution, otherwise people could be imprisoned on pure speculation.  Outside of U.S. borders, the methods used are much more difficult to keep track of, and since World War II, with the rise of indigenous nationalism, socialism, and religious fundamentalism (primarily Islamic), the World's most powerful countries (East and West) have resorted to using torture all over the Third World; which carries the stigma of not necessarily obtaining information but working as a deterrent for others or as a form of punishment.   

Methods

        Interrogation's legality comes mainly from four amendments of the constitution.  The amendments are:

Fourth Amendment - The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants  shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.

Fifth Amendment - No person ... shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ...

Sixth Amendment - In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right ... to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defense.

Fourteenth Amendment - All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws ...

    Within these democratic constraints, three approaches have become dominant in obtaining information from suspects:

    The "Good Cop / Bad Cop" Approach:

• One interrogator acts overly aggressive and accusatory, while another is sympathetic and understanding

• The contrast between the two should make the suspect confess to the "Good Cop"

• Unfortunately, Hollywood has popularized this and many criminals know not to give in to the good cop

    The Factual Approach:

• This requires an extensive investigation into the vents surrounding the crime

• With complete knowledge of the crime and it's facts and chronology the investigator can ask questions in order to get the suspect to say something than doesn't line up with the facts, so he can be called on it and possibly give a confession

• This technique is difficult since most interrogations do not have the appropriate facts when the interrogation takes place

    The Emotional Approach:

• The interrogator plays the "Good Cop" the entire time

• Interrogates on the assumption that the suspect is guilty

• Tries to rationalize why he committed the crime, by going into his personal life or stretching to find other possible reasons for breaking the law

• He also tries to minimize the magnitude of the crime, and offers rewards such as a more lenient punishment or a way to save face in public

• This method is by far the most popular in domestic investigations  

    Interrogations of foreigners (enemy combatants, terrorists, nationalists, etc.) are supposed to be under the same constraints as they are domestically, but since that is virtually impossible to monitor, torture and intimidation have become much more widespread so the approaches used above don't really apply in foreign affairs ... pain induced confessions are much more popular in the intelligence community. 

Anatomy

 The areas of the brain that are affected by the stress of interrogation and physical torture are

The Locus Coereuleus

• 

• The Hippocampus

• The Limbic System

• 

• The PNS

• The Hypothalamus

• Orbital Frontal Cortex

• Pituitary Gland

Physiology

Anatomy

The Locus Coeruleus

• Major supplier of norepenephrine in the brain

• Connected to the amygdala through dopamenergic neurons.

• Psychiatric research has shown that this connection is a major player in the psychopathology of fear

• Enhanced noradrenergic connections in this area are a major contributing factor in anxiety.

• The locus coereuleus Innervates the amygdala, spinal cord, thalamic relay nuclei, hypothalamus, and cortex

• Secretion of norepenephrine aids in the modulation of the autonomic nervous system including the sympathetic nervous system.

• Seems to act like a pacemaker or tempo modulator.

Amygdala

• Part of the limbic system

• Key area in the activation of fear and anger responses.

• Emotional Memories

• Stores emotional memories associated with terrifying and stressful situations

• Becomes active in real and perceived threats.

Orbital Frontal Cortex

• Helps inhibit fearful responses in the amygdala.

• Is less capable of inhibiting fear responses in Victims who develop PTSD.

Hippocampus

• Stores temporal and spatial memories

• Seems to be temporarily disabled during periods of physiological and mental stress, such as interrogation or torture.

• Because of this, memories of a traumatic even may not be stored in a normal chronological scheme.

• Because of this, memories are left in the forefront of awareness. When this occurs, traumatic memories may be triggered by associated circumstances.

• Post mortem studies show decreased volume in the Hippocampus. Monkeys who have undergone physical stress have decreased volume in this area.

Autonomic Nervous system

• Sympathetic and parasympathetic responses.

• Fight or flight.

Limbic system

• Includes the hypothalamus amygdala, hipppocampus, hypothalamus, and pituitary gland.

• Triggers the sympathetic nervous system when there is a threat During prolonged trauma can release hormones that trigger the Parasympathetic nervous system.

• This parasympathetic reaction can cause a victim to freeze and dissociate during trauma. During this time, the individual is less responsive to pain and fear.

• Connections occur between the locus coeruleus and hypothalamus

Hypothalamus

• Regulates Homeostasis

• Intimately connected to the pituitary gland

• Mediates states of hyperarousal.

• Responsible for responses to pain including fight or flight response.

• Recieves information from the vagus nerve

Pituitary gland

• Hormone production and regulation.

Neurochemical

Norepenephrine

• Plays a major role in anxiety associated with trauma.

• Enhanced noradrenergic neurons can lead to heightened states of anxiety.

Epinephrine

• Responsible for stress reactions such as the fight or flight response.

  

Cortisol

• Corelation between heightened cortisol levels and stress

• Cortisol is directly affected by abuse and stress.

HPA Axis

• During fearful situations the hypothalamus releases CRF and CRH

• These chemicals cause a release of ACTH in the Anterior Pituitary

• ACTH causes the adrenals to release cortisol.

GAS

• Fight or flight response alters heart and respiratory rates, energy use and glucose reserves.

• Long term metabolic adjustments occur including, usage of remaining glucose reserves, lipids, and conservation of body fluids.

• Exaustion may occur and can eventually lead to death.

Long Term Effects

Disorders Common in Torture Survivors

• Constant stress in which a person cannot run can lead to physiological resistance (GAS) in an organism.

This resistance can lead to chronic degeneration of the body and vital organs. Because of this, victims of torture and interrogation can develop symptoms such as

Digestive problems

Loss of appetite

Sleep disturbance

Decreased sexual function

Suppression of Vital Functions

 Vital functions such as digestion may malfunction from chronic levels of epinephrine and norepenephrine that trigger the fight or flight response.

 Depression

Flashbacks and recurring memories can cause depression.  

                                                                 Flashbacks                                                             

                                                              Recurring Nightmares                                                                

                                                                      Hyper vigilance                                                                 

Dissociation

References

 http://www.ptsdsupport.net/ptsd_details.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locus_ceruleus

http://neuro.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/short/17/4/503?rss=1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-traumatic_stress_disorder

http://www.psych.org/pnews/98-06-05/pill.html

http://www.usatoday.com/news/health/2004-06-28-science-of-torture_x.htm

http://www.medicinenet.com/stress/page4.htm

Wicklander, Douglas E., and David E. Zulawski.  Practical Aspects Of Interview And Interrogation. Lombard, Illinois:  CRC Press, 1993. 

The Scream, Edvard Munch