AIS 120: INDIANS OF THE AMERICAS

ORIGINS

The Choctaw have been in the Southeastern  part of North America for thousands of years with some traditions even hinting at the acknowledgement of Pleistocene megafauna, "they saw the mighty beasts of the forest, whose tread shook the earth."  However, it is not clear as to whether the Choctaw were derived from a number of cultures that went from Archaic (11,000-3,000 years ago) - Mississippian Cultures (1200-200 years ago). Choctaw tradition holds that the modern confederacy was derived from various Mississippian traditions moving into the Mississippi area 500 years ago (AD 1500), including people from Plaquemine  from Louisiana and Moundville from Alabama. The legend of the modern confederacy focuses on the sacred Nanih Waiya temple mound in Winston Co., Mississippi. 

TRADITIONAL CULTURE

The Choctaw Legend of Nanih Waiya provides clues to the culture changes that occurred in the Southeast from the 1500s to the 1700s. The Mississippian city states and original confederacies based on ancient trade alliances reflected in the archaeological evidence from Cahokia, Spiro and Moundsville; were severely disrupted most likely by Spanish traders and invasions bringing smallpox. As these vibrant civilizations were reduced in size and power, the survivors dispersed. In the 1600s three or more disparate groups with related languages came into south central Mississippi to an ancient city state known later as Nanih Waiya. One group came from the west from Louisiana or even as far as Spiro in Oklahoma they became the Okla Fayla. A second group came from the northeast and may have been remnants of Moundsville in Alabama. A third group came from the south and were the Okla Hannali. They were from a number of city states, possibly including some of the Biloxi people. These diverse groups became the Choctaw Confederacy and rose to power militarily and economically through astute diplomacy by 1700. Culture groups are always in flux and to label a traditional culture and lifestyle is arbitrary. Since we have incomplete evidence of the identity of earlier antecedents of the culture of the Choctaw Confederacy the date ~1700 is what is deemed as the traditional culture. The Choctaw will go through more changes as the Anglo Americans increased in power and removed most of the Choctaw to Oklahoma.

Language	Macro-Algonkian (Algic)	Muskogean
Settlement	North America: Eastern Woodlands/ Southeast	sc Mississippi; se Alabama
Economics	CBS agriculture Trade alliances SE and Plains Fortified Villages, Dance and Council houses, Stickball courts	wild plants, fishing and shellfish, melons, sunflower, pecan, walnut/hunting deer, bear, birds and bison   Winter house- doomed waddle and daub semi subterranean; summer house open gabled roof
Social Organization	Family and lineage: matrilineal, mo bro Clan Moiety; Exogamous/ ritual reciprocity             Inhoklasha: elder brother (white peace)             Imoklaha; younger brother (red war) Towns/Council Elders counselors war leaders Confederacy: Western/Eastern/Southern	Division of labor: Men: hunting, trade and war and Women: farming, household/ goods Male Rank: Grand Chiefs; Elders; Warriors, Uninitiated Female Rank: lineage, trade and artisan Town hierarchy: Head/Assistant; War Captains/Lt; District emissary; Council: Men and Women
World View	Myths and legends: Emergence Beliefs: Upper/Middle/Lower  Sun/Fire lifegiver Ritual: Green Corn Dance; Eagle Dance; Feasts; Ball Games and Night Dances Practitioners:' Doctors': Prophets for war and ball games; diviners, herbalists
Expressed Form	Tattoos and cranial deformation, cotton and mulberry fiber textiles; pottery (coiled),  basketry, shell, copper, monolithic maces	Various games: chunkey, stick ball (like lacrosse/two rackets), jacks and gambling games Stick ball was most elaborate (called 'little war') between towns w/ diviners

CONTACT

The Choctaw numbered around 20-30,000 in the confederacy of 1680-1750. As stated earlier they were made up of various chiefdoms derived from Mississippian cultures that declined due to indirect and direct contact with early Europeans along the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico's coastal waters and Spanish missions in Florida. Hernando De Soto's 1540 expedition made their way into Choctaw country ( at least of antecedent groups) and were routed at the Battle of Mabilia. However, De Soto left lethal diseases in his wake. Throughout most of the 18th century the Choctaw Confederacy entered into trade alliances with the British, Spanish and French. They warred with various factions of the Natchez, Chickasaw and Creeks and in 1748 became engulfed in civil war between pro-French and pro-British factions of the Choctaw Confederacy.

[edit]

 Many Choctaw aided the Americans in the Revolutionary War, which resulted in recognition in treaties between 1786-1789 led by the prophet chief Taboca. The Choctaw were eloquent speakers and conducted treaties in high formal style to the dismay of impatient and arrogant Europeans/Americans. In many cases the Choctaw were able to negotiate treaties in which the Americans were clueless or misunderstood the ramifications of the terms. The Choctaw supported the Americans and Gen. Andrew Jackson against the British in the War of 1812 under the leadership of  Pushmataha. Pushmataha convinced Choctaw factions not to side with Tecumseh and the British in 1811. However, Andrew Jackson would go on to betray the Choctaw through a series of treaties and eventual removal. In the Treaty of  Doak's Stand the U.S. reduced traditional Choctaw land in Mississippi by 5 million acres but in exchange for more than 13 million acres west of the Mississippi River. Jackson was impatient with Pushmataha and there was somewhat a battle of wills as expressed in this exchange:

Gen. Jackson put on all his dignity and thus addressed the chief: "I wish you to understand that I am Andrew Jackson, and, by the Eternal, you shall sign that treaty as I have prepared it." The mighty Choctaw Chief was not disconcerted by this haughty address, and springing suddenly to his feet, and imitating the manner of his opponent, replied, "I know very well who you are, but I wish you to understand that I am Pushmataha, head chief of the Choctaws; and, by the Eternal, I will not sign that treaty."

 The treaty itself is more conciliatory as seen in this sample:

Within four years local Mississippians encroached on remaining Choctaw land and new settlers also encroached on land in the newly exchanged land west of the Mississippi river. Since the U.S. did not honor the treaty, it was necessary for Pushmataha to travel to Washington D.C. in 1824 to see Pres. Monroe, but he became sick and died on 24 December, 1824. He was given full military honors as a Brigadier General of the U.S. Army and buried in the Congressional Cemetery in Washington D.C.

Later, when Jackson became president, he passed the Indian Removal Act of 1830 and the Choctaw ceded the last of their land in Mississippi in the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit. The Choctaw that remained in Mississippi were given citizenship. Between 1831-1833 many Choctaw went to Oklahoma, but about 5,000 stayed in the state of Mississippi. The treaty even provided that a Choctaw would be put in the U.S. House of Representatives. However, local agents and whites in Mississippi would not accept the new citizens. They blocked their citizenship rights, harassed the Choctaw, burned homes, destroyed livestock and murdered leaders. The Mississippi Choctaw slowly conceded to the jealousy and racism by removing to the Oklahoma group with less than 2,000 staying in Mississippi.

In the American Civil War the cause of the Confederacy was supported by Choctaw, Creeks and Cherokee but the confederacy refused them pay and equipment. By 1863 they were desperate and the First Choctaw Battalion under Gen. Arnold Spann honored itself with heroic rescue efforts of a Confederate train wreck at Chunky Creek, MS. After the Civil War the Mississippi Choctaw were largely ignored. In 1906 the governments of the Oklahoma Five Civilized tribes, including the Choctaw were abolished.

During World War I, a group of Choctaw used their language to formulate a code the enemy could not break.   This led to other American Indians using their language for code and the tradition of 'Code talkers'. The war effort led to official citizenship for all Native Americans in 1924. However, whites again refused to comply with the law and denied most Native Americans equal rights including using tactics used against African Americans. During World War II,  Choctaws served  as 'Code talkers' and in other units. Van T. Barfoot from Mississippi received the Medal of Honor at Anzio and retired as a Colonel in the U.S. Army. Other veterans, like Philip Martin (Tribal chairman 1978-2007 of the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians) came back and pushed for civil rights. In spite of efforts at termination in the 1950s the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma and Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians remain sovereign. The 1988 Indian Gaming Regulatory Act allowed for Class III gaming and both Choctaw entities have successful gaming. The Golden Moon Casino (opened in 2002) in Choctaw, MS is one of the most successful casinos in the country. The ancient temple mound site, Nanih Waiya was a Mississippi State Park but was returned to the Choctaw in 2006 with the Mississippi SB 2803.